Abstract Diabetic mellitus is an emerging disease in Saudi Arabia. In this regard, a cross-sectional retrospective study was conducted to evaluate drug utilization pattern and the cost associated with non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus disease management in Saudi Arabia. Data retrieved from the electronic pharmacy records during the last one year were employed in this study. World Health Organization (WHO) Defined Daily Dose (DDD) method was employed to compute the daily price of each oral hypoglycaemic agent. The American Diabetes Association (ADA) guidelines and protocols were used to evaluate the level of adherence. A total of 17057 patients were enrolled in the study. Out of the 17057 patients enrolled in the study, 60.06 % (10246) were males and the rest females. In monotherapy, biguanides (metformin) were the most recommended and utilised drugs among 5673 patients (33.25%). The most commonly used drug combination was found to be sitagliptin+metformin (1754 units). The cost per unit dose was highest for liraglutide (A10BJ02) 258.32SR (68.79USD), and lowest for metformin (A10BA02) 0.49SR (0.13 USD). Metformin was the choice drug for the diabetes patients; biguanides (metformin) and DPP-4 (sitagliptins) were the most familiar established dose combination employed. Generic drugs should be used in order to reduce overall cost.

RESUMO Introdução: Os distúrbios do sono induzem a ansiedade e esquecimento e mudam hábitos. Os medicamentos hipnóticos químicos utilizados atualmente têm efeitos colaterais graves e, portanto, as pessoas são atraídas para o uso de compostos naturais, como agentes de cura à base de plantas. O ácido abscísico (ABA) é produzido em uma variedade de tecidos de mamíferos e está envolvido em muitas funções neurofisiológicas. Objetivo: Investigar o possível efeito do ABA no sono induzido por pentobarbital e sua possível sinalização por meio dos receptores GABA-A e PPAR (γ e β), em ratos Wistar machos. Métodos: O possível efeito do ABA (5 e 10 µg/rato, intracerebroventricularmente) no tempo de latência e duração do início do sono foi avaliado em um modelo de labirinto em V de sono. Pentobarbital sódico (40 mg/kg, intraperitonealmente) foi injetado para induzir o sono 30 minutos após a administração de ABA. PPARβ (GSK0660, 80 nM/rato), PPARγ (GW9662, 3 nM/rato) ou antagonistas do receptor GABA-A (bicuculina, 6 µg/rato) foram administrados 15 minutos antes da injeção de ABA. Diazepam (2 mg/kg, intraperitonealmente) foi utilizado como grupo de controle positivo. Resultados: ABA a 5 µg aumentou significativamente os efeitos sub-hipnóticos induzidos por pentobarbital e promoveu a indução do início do sono de forma comparável ao tratamento com diazepam. Além disso, o pré-tratamento com bicuculina aboliu significativamente os efeitos do ABA nos parâmetros do sono, ao passo que os efeitos amplificadores do ABA na indução do início do sono não foram significativamente afetados pelos antagonistas do PPARβ ou PPARγ. O efeito de prolongamento do sono do ABA foi significativamente prevenido por ambos os antagonistas do PPAR. Conclusões: Os dados mostraram que o ABA estimula o sono induzido por pentobarbital e que os receptores GABA-A, PPARβ e PPARγ estão, pelo menos em parte, envolvidos na sinalização ABA.

ABSTRACT Background: Sleep disorders induce anxiety and forgetfulness and change habits. The chemical hypnotic drugs currently used have serious side effects and, therefore, people are drawn towards using natural compounds such as plant-based healing agents. Abscisic acid (ABA) is produced in a variety of mammalian tissues and it is involved in many neurophysiological functions. Objective: To investigate the possible effect of ABA on pentobarbital-induced sleep and its possible signaling through GABA-A and PPAR (γ and β) receptors, in male Wistar rats. Methods: The possible effect of ABA (5 and 10 µg/rat, intracerebroventricularly) on sleep onset latency time and duration was evaluated in a V-maze model of sleep. Pentobarbital sodium (40 mg/kg, intraperitoneally) was injected to induce sleep 30 min after administration of ABA. PPARβ (GSK0660, 80 nM/rat), PPARγ (GW9662, 3 nM/rat) or GABA-A receptor (bicuculline, 6 µg/rat) antagonists were given 15 min before ABA injection. Diazepam (2 mg/kg, intraperitoneally) was used as a positive control group. Results: ABA at 5 µg significantly boosted the pentobarbital-induced subhypnotic effects and promoted induction of sleep onset in a manner comparable to diazepam treatment. Furthermore, pretreatment with bicuculline significantly abolished the ABA effects on sleep parameters, while the amplifying effects of ABA on the induction of sleep onset was not significantly affected by PPARβ or PPARγ antagonists. The sleep prolonging effect of ABA was significantly prevented by both PPAR antagonists. Conclusions: The data showed that ABA boosts pentobarbital-induced sleep and that GABA-A, PPARβ and PPARγ receptors are, at least in part, involved in ABA signaling.

ABSTRACT Introduction: Hepatitis B virus (HBV) is responsible for one of the most common human viral infections. An estimated 257 million people are living with chronic HBV infection worldwide, and mortality has reached 900,000 deaths in recent years. In 2001, the World Health Organization reported a prevalence of chronic hepatitis B infection in Iran between 2-7%. Objective: To assess the effect of the national HBV mass vaccination program after 25 years. Methods: A retrospective cohort study was conducted in vaccinated and unvaccinated people according to the year of birth. Blood samples were obtained from each enrolled person and data about demographic variables, and medical and vaccination history were collected using a standardized questionnaire. Persons were considered uninfected if they were negative for both HBsAg and anti-HBc. Also, Vaccine effectiveness was measured by calculating the risk of disease among vaccinated and unvaccinated persons and defining the percentage risk reduction of infection in the vaccinated group. Results: A total of 2720 persons were interviewed. The rate of HBV breakthrough infection among the vaccinated group was significantly lower than in unvaccinated group. One hundred ninety-four cases with positive HBV markers of infection were identified. The risk ratio of HBV infection was 0.71, 95% CI: 0.54-0.94 (vaccinated/unvaccinated). The estimated vaccination effectiveness against Hepatitis B infection was 29% (95% CI: 6%-46%). Conclusions: Iran has successfully combined hepatitis B vaccination into regular immunization programs. The WHO goal of reducing HBsAg prevalence to an equivalent of 1% by 2020 has been reached. With respect to vaccination effectiveness and low prevalence of the disease in the country, catch-up hepatitis B vaccination programs for adolescents can guarantee the immunity of the population.

ABSTRACT OBJECTIVE: The aim of this study was to evaluate possible interactions among Angiotensin-I converting enzyme genotype, insertion/deletion polymorphism and atherosclerosis of vein grafts in Iranian patients, and characterize their clinical and demographic profile. METHODS: In this cross-sectional study, patients who underwent coronary artery bypass graft surgery more than five years ago, were included for angiographic analysis. Atherosclerosis was determined by quantitative angiography and adjusted Gensini score. The gene angiotensin converting enzyme I/D polymorphism was detected by polymerase chain reaction. RESULTS: A total of 102 patients participated in this study. Eighty-four patients were male. The frequency distribution of DD, ID and II polymorphism were 23.6%, 62.7% and 13.7% respectively. There were no differences among genotypic groups in age, sex, number of risk factors, number of vein grafts and months since bypass surgery. According to adjusted Gensini score [0.18±0.12 (II) vs. 0.11±0.09 (ID) and 0.1±0.09 (DD) P=0.021] the II genotype was associated with severity of vein graft atherosclerosis. CONCLUSION: Although there are conflicting results about gene angiotensin converting enzyme I/D polymorphism and the degree of venous bypass graft degeneration, this study suggests an association between ACE genotype II and atherosclerosis of saphenous vein grafts, however, large samples considering clinical, demographic and ethnic profile are necessary to confirm these results.

A simple and sensitive spectrophotometric method is proposed for the simultaneous determination of protocatechuic acid and protocatechuic aldehyde. The method is based on the difference in the kinetic rates of the reactions of analytes with [Ag(NH3)2]+ in the presence of polyvinylpyrrolidone to produce silver nanoparticles. The data obtained were processed by chemometric methods using principal component analysis artificial neural network and partial least squares. Excellent linearity was obtained in the concentration ranges of 1.23-58.56 µg mL-1 and 0.08-30.39 µg mL-1 for PAC and PAH, respectively. The limits of detection for PAC and PAH were 0.039 and 0.025 µg mL-1, respectively.

Silver ion imprinted polymer (IIP) was synthesized in the presence of Ag(I)-N,N’‑bis(salicylidene)ethylenediamine (salen) complex using 4-vinylpyridine as the functional monomer, ethylene glycol dimethacrylate (EGDMA) as the crosslinker, and 2,2-azobis(isobutyronitrile) (AIBN) as the initiator. The Ag(I)-imprinted polymer (IIP) particles were characterized by SEM (scanning electron microscope), FTIR (Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy) and BET/BJH (Brunauer-Emmett-Teller/Barrett-Joyner-Halenda) analysis. The imprinted Ag(I) ions were completely removed by leaching the IIP with thiourea (0.5 mol L-1). The polymer was employed as a selective sorbent for extraction and separation of the trace amounts of the Ag(I) ions. The preconcentrated ion was determined via the flame atomic absorption spectrometry (FAAS) or it was reduced to silver nanoparticles and quantified by spectrophotometry based on its localized surface plasmon resonance peak (LSPRP). The figures of merit of both methods were compared. Under the optimized conditions, a sample volume of 80 mL resulted in an enhancement factor of 312. The detection limit (3Sb/m) and the relative standard deviation (n = 10) at 10 µg L-1 level for FAAS were found to be 0.06 µg L-1, 2.9%, whereas for the LSPRP method they were 0.5 µg L-1 and 10.3%, respectively. The methods were successfully applied to the determination of silver in radiology film, hair, nails, and water samples.

In this study, some characteristics of Rhizophora spp. particleboards bonded with Serishoom (traditional animal-based adhesive) as a phantom material was investigated. The Rhizophora spp. particleboards were fabricated in two Serishoom adhesive treatment levels (6% and 12%) with three Rhizophora spp. particle sizes (≤ 149 µm, 149 µm - 500 µm, and 500 µm - 1000 µm) at 1 g.cm-3 of the target density. The internal bond strength and the dimensional stability of the Serishoom-bonded Rhizophora spp. particleboards were improved by using the smaller Rhizophora spp. particle size and the higher Serishoom adhesive treatment level. The effective atomic numbers of the Serishoom-bonded Rhizophora spp. particleboards were determineted to be 7,56 to 7,58 by an energy dispersive X-ray, which is in good agreement with those of water and breast tissue. In addition, the density distribution profiles of the fabricated Serishoom-bonded Rhizophora spp. particleboards were determined by the Kriging method with the use Surfer8 computer software, which indicated that there was good density homogeneity throughout the Serishoom-bonded Rhizophora spp. particleboards. The results showed a potential of the Serishoom-bonded Rhizophora spp. particleboard bonded with Serishoom to be used as a phantom material.

摘要 目的 描述和分析口服霍乱疫苗接种活动的特点，包括位置、目标人群、物流、疫苗覆盖率和交付成本。 方法 我们搜索了PubMed、世界卫生组织（WHO）网站和Cochrane数据库，搜索中不附加任何日期或语言限制。联系该领域和卫生部的公...

Résumé Objectif Décrire et analyser les caractéristiques des campagnes de vaccination orale contre le choléra; y compris le site, la population cible, la logistique, la couverture vaccinale et les coûts de distribution. Méthodes Nous avons effectué des recherches dans PubMed, le site Internet de l'Organisation mondiale de la Santé (OMS) et la base de données Cochrane sans aucune restriction de date ou de langue. Nous avons contacté des membres du personnel de la santé publique, des experts travaillant dans le domaine et dans les ministè...

Резюме Цель Описать и проанализировать особенности кампаний по проведению пероральной вакцинации против холе...

Abstract Objective To describe and analyse the characteristics of oral cholera vaccination campaigns; including location, target population, logistics, vaccine coverage and delivery costs. Methods We searched PubMed, the World Health Organization (WHO) website and the Cochrane database with no date or language restrictions. We contacted public health personnel, experts in the field and in ministries of health and did targeted web searches. Findings A total of 33 documents were included in the analysis. One country, Viet Nam, incorporates oral cholera vaccination into its public health programme and has administered approximately 10.9 million vaccine doses between 1997 and 2012. In addition, over 3 million doses of the two WHO pre-qualified oral cholera vaccines have been administered in more than 16 campaigns around the world between 1997 and 2014. These campaigns have either been pre-emptive or reactive and have taken place under diverse conditions, such as in refugee camps or natural disasters. Estimated two-dose coverage ranged from 46 to 88% of the target population. Approximate delivery cost per fully immunized person ranged from 0.11–3.99 United States dollars. Conclusion Experience with oral cholera vaccination campaigns continues to increase. Public health officials may draw on this experience and conduct oral cholera vaccination campaigns more frequently.

ملخص الغرض وصف خصائص حملات التطعيم بلقاحات الكوليرا الفموية وتحليلها؛ بما في ذلك الموقع والسكان المستهدفين...

Resumen Objetivo Describir y analizar las características de las campañas de vacunación oral contra el cólera, incluyendo la ubicación, la población objetivo, la logística, los costes de cobertura y la entrega de vacunas. Métodos Realizamos búsquedas en PubMed, la página web de la Organización Mundial de la salud (OMS) y la base de datos Cochrane sin restricciones de fechas ni idioma. Nos pusimos en contacto con el personal de salud pública, expertos del sector y los ministerios de salud, y realizamos búsquedas específicas en la web. Resultados Se incluyó un total de 33 documentos en el análisis. Un país, Viet Nam, incorpora vacunas orales contra el cólera en su programa de salud pública y ha administrado aproximadamente 10,9 millones de dosis de vacunas entre 1997 y 2012. Además, se han administrado más 3 de millones de dosis de las dos vacunas orales contra el cólera orales que cumplen con los requisitos de la OMS en más de 16 campañas en todo el mundo realizadas entre 1997 y 2014. Estas campañas han sido preventivas o reactivas, y se han llevado a cabo en diversas condiciones, como en campamentos de refugiados o desastres naturales. La cobertura estimada de dos dosis osciló entre el 46 y 88 % de la población objetivo. El coste aproximado del suministro por persona completamente inmunizada osciló entre 0,11 y 3,99 dólares de los Estados Unidos. Conclusión La experiencia con las campañas de vacunación oral contra el cólera sigue aumentando. Los funcionarios de salud pública pueden aprovechar esta experiencia y realizar campañas de vacunación orales contra el cólera con mayor frecuencia.

O cádmio de uma amostra aquosa foi quantitativamente adsorvido em uma microcoluna empacotada com cadion imobilizado em nanopartículas de TiO2 recobertas por dodecilsulfato de sódio. O cádmio retido foi eluido com uma solução de ácido clorídrico 2,5 mol L-1 e medido por espectroscopia de absorção atômica com vapor frio (CVAAS). As influências de diferentes variáveis, como pH, taxas de fluxo da amostra e do eluente, quantidade do sorvente e volume da amostra, na recuperação do cádmio foram investigadas. Sob condições ótimas, um volume de 200 mL de amostra resultou em um fator de pré-concentração de 100. A precisão (RSD%, n = 8) em 0,05 µg L-1 de cádmio foi 3,6% e o limite de detecção, baseado em três vezes o desvio padrão do branco (3Sb), foi de 1,3 ng L-1. O método foi aplicado com sucesso à determinacão de cádmio em amostras de arroz, peixe, leite e água.

Cadmium was quantitatively adsorbed from aqueous sample onto a microcolumn packed with cadion immobilized on sodium dodecyl sulfate-coated TiO2 nanoparticles. The retained cadmium was eluted with 2.5 mol L-1 hydrochloric acid solution and measured by cold vapor atomic absorption spectrometry (CVAAS). The influences of different variables such as pH, sample and eluent flow rates, amount of the sorbent and volume of the sample on the recovery of cadmium were investigated. Under the optimum conditions, a sample volume of 200 mL resulted in a preconcentration factor of 100. The precision (RSD%, n = 8) at the 0.05 µg L-1 level of cadmium was 3.6% and the limit of detection based on three times the standard deviation of blank solution (3Sb) was 1.3 ng L-1. The method was successfully applied to the determination of cadmium in rice, fish, milk, and water samples.

A dispersive liquid-liquid microextraction based on solidification of floating organic drop for simultaneous extraction of trace amounts of nickel, cobalt and copper followed by their determination with electrothermal atomic absorption spectrometry was developed. 300 µL of acetone and 1-undecanol was injected into an aqueous sample containing diethyldithiocarbamate complexes of metal ions. For a sample volume of 10 mL, enrichment factors of 277, 270 and 300 and detection limits of 1.2, 1.1 and 1 ng L-1 for nickel, cobalt and copper were obtained, respectively. The method was applied to the extraction and determination of these metals in different water samples.

OBJECTIVE: To estimate the global burden of cholera using population-based incidence data and reports. METHODS: Countries with a recent history of cholera were classified as endemic or non-endemic, depending on whether they had reported cholera cases in at least three of the five most recent years. The percentages of the population in each country that lacked access to improved sanitation were used to compute the populations at risk for cholera, and incidence rates from published studies were applied to groups of countries to estimate the annual number of cholera cases in endemic countries. The estimates of cholera cases in non-endemic countries were based on the average numbers of cases reported from 2000 to 2008. Literature-based estimates of cholera case-fatality rates (CFRs) were used to compute the variance-weighted average cholera CFRs for estimating the number of cholera deaths. FINDINGS: About 1.4 billion people are at risk for cholera in endemic countries. An estimated 2.8 million cholera cases occur annually in such countries (uncertainty range: 1.4-4.3) and an estimated 87 000 cholera cases occur in non-endemic countries. The incidence is estimated to be greatest in children less than 5 years of age. Every year about 91 000 people (uncertainty range: 28 000 to 142 000) die of cholera in endemic countries and 2500 people die of the disease in non-endemic countries. CONCLUSION: The global burden of cholera, as determined through a systematic review with clearly stated assumptions, is high. The findings of this study provide a contemporary basis for planning public health interventions to control cholera.

OBJETIVO: Calcular la carga global del cólera empleando los informes y datos sobre su incidencia en la población. MÉTODOS: Los países con unos antecedentes recientes de cólera se clasificaron como endémicos o no endémicos en función de si habían comunicado casos de cólera en al menos tres de los últimos cinco años. Se emplearon los porcentajes nacionales de población sin acceso a una sanidad moderna con el fin de calcular la población en riesgo de padecer el cólera y se aplicaron las tasas de incidencia de los estudios publicados a los grupos de países para calcular el número anual de casos de cólera en países endémicos. El cálculo aproximado del número de casos de cólera en países no endémicos se basó en las cifras medias de casos comunicados entre 2000 y 2008. Se utilizaron los cálculos aproximados de la tasa de mortalidad por cólera (TMC) procedentes de la documentación disponible para establecer la varianza ponderada de la TMC media para el cólera y calcular de este modo el número de defunciones por esta enfermedad. RESULTADOS: Aproximadamente 1,4 mil millones de personas están en riesgo de padecer el cólera en los países endémicos. Se ha calculado que en dichos países se registran aproximadamente 2,8 millones de casos de cólera al año (rango de incertidumbre: 1,4-4,3) así como unos 87 000 casos de cólera en los países no endémicos. Se estima que la incidencia más elevada se registra en los niños menores de 5 años. Cada año mueren unas 91 000 personas (rango de incertidumbre: 28 000 a 142 000) de cólera en los países endémicos y 2500 personas fallecen por esta enfermedad en los países no endémicos. CONCLUSIÓN: La carga global del cólera es elevada, según se ha determinado a través de una revisión sistemática con supuestos claramente definidos. Los resultados de este estudio ofrecen una base contemporánea para planificar las intervenciones de la sanidad pública dirigidas a controlar el cólera.

OBJECTIF: Estimer le fardeau mondial du choléra en utilisant les rapports et les données d'incidence basés sur la population. MÉTHODES: Les pays récemment affectés par le choléra ont été classés comme pays endémiques ou non endémiques, selon qu'ils avaient signalé des cas de choléra au cours d'au moins trois des cinq dernières années. Dans chaque pays, les pourcentages de la population n'ayant pas accès à des installations sanitaires améliorées ont été utilisés pour calculer les populations exposées au choléra, et les taux d'incidence tirés d'études publiées ont été appliqués à des groupes de pays afin d'évaluer le nombre annuel de cas de choléra dans les pays endémiques. Les estimations de cas de choléra dans les pays non endémiques étaient basées sur le nombre moyen de cas signalés de 2000 à 2008. Les estimations du taux de létalité (TL) du choléra basées sur la documentation disponible ont été utilisées pour calculer les TL du choléra moyens de variance pondérée afin d'évaluer le nombre de décès imputables au choléra. RÉSULTATS: Environ 1,4 milliard de personnes sont exposées au choléra dans les pays endémiques. Environ 2,8 millions de cas de choléra se produisent chaque année dans ces pays (marge d'incertitude: 1,4-4,3), et quelque 87 000 cas de choléra sont enregistrés dans les pays non endémiques. On estime que l'incidence est supérieure chez les enfants de moins de 5 ans. Chaque année, environ 91 000 personnes (marge d'incertitude: 28 000 à 142 000) meurent du choléra dans les pays endémiques et 2 500 personnes en meurent dans les pays non endémiques. CONCLUSION: Le fardeau mondial du choléra, tel que déterminé par une revue systématique sur la base d'hypothèses clairement énoncées, est élevé. Les résultats de cette étude fournissent une base actuelle pour la planification des interventions de santé publique afin de lutter contre le choléra.

A extração por ponto nuvem (CPE) é proposta como um procedimento de separação e pré-concentração para a determinação de cádmio em amostras de água por espectrometria de absorção atômica com chama associada a sistema de injeção em fluxo (FI-FAAS). O íon cádmio em solução aquosa foi convertido a [CdI4]2- e sua carga foi neutralizada pela formação do par iônico com o cátion metiltrioctilamônio na presença de TritonX-114 como surfactante não iônico. A separação de fases foi obtida pelo aquecimento da mistura a 80 ºC por 10 min. A fase rica em surfactante foi diluída com 300 µL de etanol e 100 µL foram analisados por FI-FAAS. Os parâmetros que influenciam a formação do par iônico e extração foram otimizados. Sob condições ótimas, a pré-concentração de 35 mL de amostra na presença de 0,04% (v/v) de Triton X-114 possibilitou um limite de detecção de 0,3 µg L-1 de Cd(II). A curva analítica de calibração foi linear até 250 µg L-1 de cádmio e o desvio padrão relativo foi inferior a 4% para uma solução contendo 100 µg L-1 de Cd. O procedimento gerou recuperações no intervalo de 95-102%. O procedimento foi aplicado com sucesso para a determinação de cádmio em água de torneira, água de mar e em material de referência certificado de concentrado de cobre.

Cloud point extraction (CPE) is proposed as a separation and preconcentration procedure for determination of cadmium in water samples by flow injection flame atomic absorption spectrometry (FI-FAAS). The cadmium ion in aqueous solution was converted to [CdI4]2- and its charge was neutralized through ion-pair formation with methyltrioctylammonium cation in the presence of Triton X-114 as a non ionic surfactant. Phase separation was achieved by heating the mixture to 80 ºC for 10 min. The surfactant-rich phase was diluted with 300 µL of ethanol and 100 µL of it was analysed by FI-FAAS. The parameters affecting the ion-pair formation and extraction steps were optimized. Under optimum condition, preconcentration of 35 mL of sample in the presence of 0.04% (v/v) of Triton X- 114 led to a detection limit of 0.3 µg L-1 of Cd(II). Analytical calibration curve was linear up to 250 µg L-1 of cadmium and relative standard deviation was lower than 4% at 100 µg L-1 level. The procedure affords recoveries in the range of 95-102%. The procedure was successfully applied to the determination of Cd in tap water, sea water and certified reference copper concentrate.

OBJECTIVE: To define mortality patterns in an urban slum in Kolkata, India, in the context of a cholera and typhoid fever project. METHODS: In a well-defined population that was under surveillance for 18 months, we followed a dynamic cohort of 63788 residents whose households were visited monthly by community health workers to identify deaths. Trained physicians performed verbal autopsies and experienced senior physicians assigned the primary cause of death according to the International classification of diseases, 10th edition. We tabulated causes of death in accordance with Global Burden of Disease 2000 categories and assessed overall and cause-specific mortality rates per age group and gender. FINDINGS: During 87921 person-years of follow-up, we recorded 544 deaths. This gave an overall mortality rate of 6.2 per 1000 person-years. We assigned a cause to 89% (482/544) of the deaths. The leading causes of death, in descending order, were cardiovascular diseases (especially among adults aged over 40 years), cancer, respiratory ailments and digestive disorders. Most deaths in children under 5 years of age were caused by tuberculosis, respiratory infections and diarrhoeal diseases. CONCLUSION: Although the most common causes of death in children were infectious, non-communicable diseases were predominant among adults. There is a need for continuing interventions against infectious diseases in addition to new and innovative strategies to combat non-infectious conditions.

OBJETIVOS: Definir los patrones de mortalidad en un barrio urbano pobre de Kolkata, India, dentro del contexto de un proyecto contra el cólera y la fiebre tifoidea. MÉTODOS: En una población bien definida y sometida a vigilancia durante 18 meses se realizó el seguimiento de un conjunto de 63788 residentes, cuyos hogares recibieron visitas mensuales del personal sanitario comunitario para identificar las defunciones. Las entrevistas con los familiares y allegados de las personas fallecidas fueron realizadas por médicos expertos, y los directores médicos atribuyeron la causa principal de la muerte siguiendo la Clasificación Internacional de Enfermedades, 10.a edición. Las causas de la muerte se clasificaron según las categorías de la Carga Mundial de Morbilidad del 2000 y se evaluaron las tasas de mortalidad general y específica de cada caso en función del grupo de edad y del sexo. RESULTADOS: Se registraron 544 muertes durante el seguimiento de 87921 años-persona. Estos datos generaron una tasa de mortalidad de 6,2 por 1000 años-persona. En el 89% de las muertes (482/544) se asignó una causa. Las principales causas de defunción, en orden descendente, fueron: las enfermedades cardiovasculares (fundamentalmente, entre los adultos mayores de 40 años), el cáncer, las enfermedades respiratorias y los trastornos digestivos. La mayoría de las muertes acaecidas en niños menores de cinco años se debieron a la tuberculosis, las infecciones respiratorias y las enfermedades diarreicas. CONCLUSIÓN: Aunque las causas más frecuentes de muerte infantil fueron las infecciosas, en los adultos predominaron las enfermedades infecciosas no contagiosas. Es necesario continuar con las intervenciones contra las enfermedades infecciosas, así como iniciar estrategias nuevas e innovadoras para luchar contra las enfermedades no infecciosas.

OBJECTIF: Définir des modèles de mortalité dans un quartier urbain pauvre de Kolkata en Inde, dans le contexte d'un projet choléra et fièvre typhoïde. MÉTHODES: Au sein d'une population bien définie, surveillée pendant 18 mois, nous avons suivi une cohorte dynamique de 63788 résidents dont les foyers ont été visités chaque mois par des professionnels communautaires de la santé pour identifier les décès. Des médecins compétents ont réalisé des autopsies verbales et des professeurs experts ont référencé la cause primaire du décès à partir de la Classification internationale des maladies, 10e édition. Nous avons mis en tableau les causes de décès conformément aux catégories du «Global Burden of Disease 2000» et nous avons évalué les taux de mortalité généraux et pour cause spécifique par tranche d'âge et par sexe. RÉSULTATS: Au cours des 87921 personnes-années de suivi, nous avons enregistré 544 décès. Cela donne un taux de mortalité total de 6,2 par 1 000 personnes-années. Nous avons attribué une cause à 89% (482/544) des décès. Les principales causes de décès, par ordre décroissant, étaient des maladies cardio-vasculaires (surtout parmi les adultes âgés de 40 ans et plus), des cancers, des maladies respiratoires et des troubles digestifs. La plupart des décès chez les enfants de moins de 5 ans ont été causés par la tuberculose, des infections respiratoires et des maladies diarrhéiques. CONCLUSION: Alors que les causes de décès les plus communes chez les enfants étaient d'origine infectieuse, les maladies non transmissibles ont été prédominantes chez les adultes. Des interventions en continu sont nécessaires contre les maladies infectieuses, conjointement à des stratégies nouvelles et innovatrices pour combattre les conditions non infectieuses.

PROBLEM: Field trials require extensive data preparation and complex logistics. The use of personal digital assistants (PDAs) can bypass many of the traditional steps that are necessary in a paper-based data entry system. APPROACH: We programmed, designed and supervised the use of PDAs for a large survey enumeration and mass vaccination campaign. LOCAL SETTING: The project was implemented in Zanzibar in the United Republic of Tanzania. Zanzibar is composed of two main islands, Unguja and Pemba, where outbreaks of cholera have been reported since the 1970s. RELEVANT CHANCES: PDAs allowed us to digitize information at the initial point of contact with the respondents. Immediate response by the system in case of error helped ensure the quality and reliability of the data. PDAs provided quick data summaries that allowed subsequent research activities to be implemented in a timely fashion. LESSONS LEARNT: Portability, immediate recording and linking of information enhanced structure data collection in our study. PDAs could be more useful than paper-based systems for data collection in the field, especially in impoverished settings in developing countries.

PROBLEMA: Los ensayos sobre el terreno exigen una amplia preparación de los datos y una logística compleja. Los asistentes personales digitales (PDA) permiten sortear muchas de las medidas tradicionales que requieren los métodos de anotación de datos en papel. ENFOQUE: Procedimos a programar, diseñar y supervisar el uso de PDA para el trabajo de enumeración de una gran encuesta y la posterior campaña de vacunación masiva. CONTEXTO LOCAL: El proyecto se llevó a cabo en Zanzíbar, en la República Unida de Tanzanía. El territorio de Zanzíbar se reparte fundamentalmente en dos islas, Unguja y Pemba, en las que se vienen notificando brotes de cólera desde los años setenta. CAMBIOS DESTACABLES: Los PDA nos permitieron digitalizar la información en el punto inicial de contacto con los encuestados. La respuesta inmediata del sistema en caso de error nos ayudó a reunir datos de mayor calidad y fiabilidad. Los PDA generaban resúmenes rápidos de los datos que permitían emprender nuevas actividades de investigación en el momento oportuno. ENSEÑANZAS EXTRAÍDAS: La transportabilidad, la inmediatez del registro y la vinculación de la información mejoraron la recopilación de datos estructurados en nuestro estudio. Los PDA pueden ser más útiles que los sistemas basados en papel para reunir datos sobre el terreno, especialmente en los entornos empobrecidos de los países en desarrollo.

PROBLÉMATIQUE: Les essais sur le terrain exigent des opérations de préparation des données de grande ampleur et une logistique complexe. L'utilisation d'assistants numériques personnels (PDA ou organiseurs) peut court-circuiter nombre des étapes qu'impose traditionnellement un système de saisie des données sur support papier. DÉMARCHE: Nous avons programmé, pensé et supervisé l'utilisation de PDA pour un dénombrement de grande ampleur dans le cadre d'une enquête et pour une campagne de vaccination de masse. CONTEXTE LOCAL: Le projet a été mis en œuvre au Zanzibar, en République Unie de Tanzanie. Zanzibar se compose de deux iles principales, Unguja et Pemba, dans lesquelles des flambées de choléra sont notifiées depuis les années 1970. MODIFICATIONS PERTINENTES: Les PDA nous ont permis de numériser l'information au point initial de contact avec les personnes interrogées. Une réponse immédiate du système en cas d'erreur a contribué à garantir la qualité et la fiabilité des données. Les PDA ont fourni des synthèses rapides des données permettant de mettre en œuvre sans délai des activités de recherche faisant suite aux premières. ENSEIGNEMENTS TIRÉS: La portabilité, l'enregistrement immédiat et la mise en relation des informations a permis de mieux structurer la collecte des données dans notre étude. Les PDA pourraient être plus utiles que les systèmes à support papier pour la collecte des données sur le terrain, notamment dans les zones pauvres des pays en développement.

Um procedimento de extração no ponto nuvem (CPE) foi desenvolvido para a separação e pré-concentração de baixas concentrações de cobalto previamente à determinação por espectrometria de absorção atômica em chama (FAAS). O procedimento é baseado na formação do complexo de Co(II) com 2-[(2-mercaptofenilimino)metil]fenol (MPMP), seguido pela extração em fase rica em surfactante Triton X-114. Alguns parâmetros importantes que afetam a complexação e extração, tais como pH, concentrações do agente quelante e do surfactante, temperatura e tempo de equilíbrio, foram otimizados. Sob condições ótimas, a pré-concentração de um volume de 25 mL da amostra resultou em um limite de detecção de 0,21 µg L-1, um fator de enriquecimento de 97 e um desvio padrão relativo de 1,2% (n = 8, 60 µg L-1) para a determinação de Co(II) por FI-FAAS. O método foi aplicado com sucesso para amostras de água, vitamina B12 e ampolas de complexo B. A exatidão do método foi comprovada por experimentos de adição-recuperação, análise independente por espectrometria de absorção atômica com forno de grafite e determinação de Co em material de referência certificado.

A cloud point extraction (CPE) procedure was developed for the separation and preconcentration of trace amounts of cobalt prior to its determination by flame atomic absorption spectrometry (FAAS). The procedure is based on the formation of Co(II) complex with 2-[(2-mercaptophenylimino)methyl]phenol (MPMP) followed by its extraction into a Triton X-114 surfactant-rich phase. Some important parameters affecting both complexation and extraction, such as pH, concentrations of chelating agent and surfactant, temperature, and time of equilibration, were optimized. Under optimum conditions, the preconcentration of a volume of 25 mL of sample resulted in a limit of detection of 0.21 µg L-1, an enhancement factor of 97, and a relative standard deviation of 1.2 % (n = 8, 60 µg L-1) for the determination of Co(II) by FI-FAAS. This procedure was successfully applied to water, vitamin B12 and B-complex samples. The accuracy was assessed employing addition-recovery experiments, independent analysis by graphite furnace atomic absorption spectrometry and by using a certified reference material.